Biology Notes Essay Example for Free

Biology Notes Essay Chromosomes: They are found inside the nucleus of cells. They are X Shaped Objects that Contain DNA. Each Chromosome is made from two Chromatids. Chromosomes are held together by a disc called a centromere. Chromosomes are always found in Pairs. A| T| G| C| C| G| DNA: It Stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is Made from Nucleic acids of ten (referred to as bases). The four bases are Adenine (A) which always pairs with Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) which always pairs with Guanine (G). T| C| A| G| T| G| RIGHT WRONG Genes: A gene is the short length of the chromosome which is a molecule of a DNA. Genes can exist in Different Versions. Different Versions of the same gene are known as ALLELES. Each gene codes for a specific Protein. Some proteins are Structural, meaning they can form skin, hair, blood and cytoplasm. Others are Functional (enzymes) controlling chemical reactions such as respiration or digestion. Genetic Information is stored by Genes who are arranged on Chromosomes. Variation: This is the Difference between humans. There are two types of variation. The First is Genetic Variation (Caused by your Genes and can’t be changed e.g. your natural hair colour, eye colour). The Second is Environmental Variation (Caused by your surrounding and can be changed e.g. Dying your Hair, Ear Piercings). Genetic Variation: Caused by the DNA in the cells in your body. We Can’t Change this. Environmental Variation: Caused by your Surroundings, Family and Friends. We can Change this. Determining Your Gender: A Sperm Cell has an X chromosome and a Y chromosome. An Egg Cell has two X Chromosomes. If the fertilised egg has a X Chromosome from the sperm the Foetus will be a Girl if it has a Y Chromosome (the Chromosome carrying Testosterone) the Foetus will Be a Boy. There is a 50:50 Chance of Having a Boy or a Girl. Further Gender Determination Chromosome pair 23 is known as the Sex Chromosomes. There are two Different types of of Chromosome 23 – The X and Y chromosome. The only Difference is that the Y chromosome carries the gene for testosterone, X does not. All Cells carry at least one X Chromosome. Sperm Cells carry either a Y or X chromosome. Allele – A different version of the same gene. Heterozygous – When There are two types of an allele in the genotype e.g. Bb – Brown. Homozygous – When there is only one type of Allele in the genotype e.g. BB(-Brown) or bb(-Blonde). B = Dominant – Always Expressed, b = Recessive – only expressed in a Homozygous genotype. Natural Cloning * The Hydra (Plant) Shows Budding * Asexual Reproduction The Spider Plant and Strawberries often reproduce this way. Twins: They are formed by the fertilised egg splitting in half and the two halves turn into to two identical babies. Artificial Cloning For many years, mammals have been cloned by splitting embryos – Artificial Cloning. There are two types of Artificial Cloning Cloning Way 1 1. They take an egg cell from one mammal. 2. A Body Cell is taken from a second mammal (the same mammal as the first) 3. The egg cell nucleus is removed from the cell 4. The body cell nucleus is also removed 5. The Nucleus from the body cell is inserted into the egg cell to make a clone of the Second Mammal. 6. The egg cell divides and is put into the uterus of the first Mammal. The Clone grows into a mature mammal. Cloning Way 2 It isn’t just Reproductive Cloning (Cloning People/mammals) we could use this technology for. Cloning human cells may be useful in treating humans. Reproductive Cloning – When a baby is born from cloning Stem Cells A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell which means they can turn into any type of cell required. They can therefore be used to make organs. They Can be used to replace damaged cells. Inherited diseases Cystic Fibrosis * 1 in 200 Children are affected by Cystic Fibrosis. * Is an Inherited disease * They produce thick sticky mucus. This can block the air passages and the tubes that carry digestive juices to the gut. * The Child has trouble breathing and absorbing food. * Patients are treated by chest physio-therapy. * The Mucus is a good breeding ground for germs. * Sufferers often get infections and have to be treated with strong antibiotics. At the moment there is no cure. * Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive Allele(c) – So to contract the disease a person must have two recessive alleles (cc). * Heterozygous people (Cc) do not get the disease but can act as carriers and pass it on to their children. * The disease is shown from Birth. * It affects the lungs and gut. Huntington’s Disease * This is a rare inherited disease. * It affects about 1 in 20,000 * It shows up when the patient is about 30 – 40 years old. * The cells of the brain degenerate and the patient makes clumsy and jerky movements. * The sufferers become moody and depressed. * The memory is affected and they eventually become totally disabled. * Huntington’s disease is caused by a dominant gene – so only one allele is needed to give the disease. * So all heterozygous people are sufferers because the onset of the disease occurs so late many people have produced a family before they find out they have the condition. * The Organ Effected is the Brain. Bacteria cell Bacteria are known as micro-organisms. Many of these cause disease. Those that cause disease are called Pathogens. Other micro-organisms include Protozoans, Fungi and Viruses. Micro Organisms reproduce quickly in warm, damp places. Once inside a host of Pathogens reproduce and cause Infection. How Pathogens can enter our Body * Nat Bites/ Being Bitten * Eating * Touch * Sexually Transmitted * Bugs * Dogs/ Animals * Breathing it in * Birds * Injections * Cuts * Natural Openings * Blood Transplants * Organ Transplants Things that protect our Body from Pathogens * Eyebrows/ Eyelashes * Cilia * Acid * Mucus * Tears * Skin * White Blood Cells * Healing over cuts Gaining Immunity Example 1) James is Infected by some bacteria that causes a disease 2) The bacteria reproduce and James gets ill. 3) One of James’ white blood cells detect the bacteria. It makes anti bodies to destroy the bacteria. 4) The white blood cells reproduce. Now there are lots of them making Anti-bodies. 5) The bacteria are all killed. James gets better. 6) Most of the white blood cells that make the antibodies die, but a few of them stay in the blood. 7) James is infected with the same bacteria again. 8) The white blood cells to make the antibody are still in James’ Blood. So this time they are ready to kill the bacteria very quickly. 9) The bacteria are killed before they can make James ill. He is Immune to this disease. Anti-body = A Chemical made by White blood cells which binds to Antigen. Antigen = A marker on the surface of a Pathogen that identifies it as foreign. Pathogen = A micro-organism which causes Disease. White Blood Cells: * Produce Anti-bodies to neutralise the Microbe * They eat the microbe * They produce anti-toxins to neutralise the poisons produced by microbes. Producing Anti-bodies 1. A White Blood cell detects a pathogen. 2. A White Blood cell produces Anti-bodies. 3. The anti-bodies bind with Antigens. 4. The Pathogen is engulfed by the White Blood Cell. Natural Immunity This is when Anti-bodies are produced by a Person when needed or they are passed on by a mother during Pregnancy. Artificial Immunity A Vaccine with dead Microbes is injected – the body is ‘tricked’ into producing anti-bodies ready for the real thing. This is called Passive Immunisation. We should use the new influenza vaccines every year because influenza reproduces very quickly. Also it has a high mutation rate, which means that it changes so you need to continually be protected by Influenza. Especially if you suffer from other illnesses, because you would be at risk the most. Also the antigens would have changed shape. Vaccinations Policy Benefits – Wont spread through a large population is a benefit. Also if a woman has a vaccination then falls pregnant she passes the antibodies onto the child. A vaccine Policy is a decision made by the government to vaccinate a large amount of people. This usually only works if the majority of people agree to it. Antibiotics Immunity/ Immune: When your body has already met a Pathogen once and therefore cannot make you ill again Antibody: These attach to pathogens and Stick the together. Vaccine/ Vaccination: An inactive or dead version of a pathogen is introduced into the body. Antigen: The marker on a Pathogen that a White Blood Cell can recognise. White Blood cells: a Cell that produces Antibodies. Antibiotics: * You take them and they kill the bacteria and it makes you better * You have to take them continually * They take a while to settle in * They kill infections * They are produced by Bacteria and Fungi * Are Drugs that are effective at killing Bacteria and Fungi * Antibiotics do not seriously damage body cells * Antibiotics are derived from micro-organisms * Penicillin comes from bread mould and was the first antibiotic discovered. * However they have limited use and have no effect on viruses. Antibiotics and Superbugs Antibiotics are used to kill Bacteria and Fungi in an infection in the body. The chemicals are made from Fungi and Bacteria. Antibiotics are Drugs that kill Bacteria and Fungi without harming body cells. These drugs do not affect viruses. A Superbug Bacteria is a Mutation to a Normal Bacteria. It is resistant to normal Antibiotics. How could we help Reduce Superbugs? Hospitals Hospitals can make sure that they treat people with the Superbug properly to stop it from spreading. Keep the Hospital Clean. Inject staff to Stop it Spreading, and to make them Immune. GP Inject people more Often and Give out Leaflets. Drug Companies Make a more effective drug and make a vaccine. The Public Allow people to inject them and make them immune. Antibiotic Resistance Stages 1. The cell starts to replicate the DNA 2. The cell has had the DNA Replicate. So therefore the cell has elongated. 3. The Cell has started budding. 4. Binary Fission has taken place and the cell has cloned itself. A Mutation is a change in the bases that make up DNA. These changes can cause a change in a gene. This can change a Protein and thus affect the Characteristics of an Organism. Drug Trials It is important to do strict test on drugs to check that they are safe for use, do what they are supposed to do and to check the side effects. Drugs are tested on human cells that have been developed in a laboratory (The drug is tested on different body cells), then it is tested on animals (to see whether it works as well on whole animals as on the cells) before it is used on human patients(these are tested on volunteers).The three drug trials are Double blind(both doctor and patient do not know the drug is new), Blind trial(only the patient does not know the drug is true but the doctor does), and Open trial(both doctor and patient know the drug is new). A placebo is when a doctor gives a patient something that does not contain Drugs. A Placebo is used in blind trials.

Database design process Essay -- essays research papers

Abstract Database Systems has a practical, hands-on approach that makes it uniquely suited to providing a strong foundation in good database design practice. Database design is more art than science. While it's true that a properly designed database should follow the normal forms and the relational model, you still have to come up with a design that reflects the business you are trying to model. This paper shows describes design process of database project. The importance of Completing the Design Process An important point to keep in mind is that the level of structural integrity and data integrity is in direct proportion to how thoroughly the design process is followed. The less time spent on the design process, the greater the risk of encountering problems with the database. While thoroughly following the database design process may not eliminate all of the problems you may encounter when designing a database, it will greatly help to minimize them. Also in an RDBMS software program a well-designed database is easier to implement than a poorly designed database. (Michael J. Hernandez, 1996) Key database Design Concepts Before a design effort can proceed full speed ahead, the designer must first take time to understand the business. Understanding the business involves understanding the entities, data, and rules within an organization, and then converting these attributes of the business into a business model. Then, the designer must have a solid comprehension of the proposed database model. Finally, the designer will convert the business model into a database model, using a design methodology, whether automated or a manual process. (Ryan Stephens & Ronald Plew, 2002) General Design Process Following table list general steps of database design Step Description 1 Requirements collection and analysis 2 Conceptual database design 3 Choice of a DBMS 4 Data model mapping (also called logical database design) 5 Physical database design 6 Database system implementation (Elmasri, Ramez, & Navathe, Shamkant B., 1994) Creating the application is the last step ¡Ã‚ ªnot the first! Many developers take an idea for an application, bu... ... levels of normalization, but the primary levels are the first, second, and third normal forms. Each level has a rule or two that must be followed. Following all of the rules will help ensure that your database is well organized and flexible. To take an idea from inception through to fruition, you should follow a design process. This process essentially says "think before you act." Discuss rules, requirements, and objectives, and then create the final version of your normalized tables. Reference 1. Elmasri, Ramez, & Navathe, Shamkant B., Fundamentals of Database Systems, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994, ISBN 0-8053-1748-1, pages 450-452.), retrieved from website http://www.ibiblio.org/faint/finosaur/db/ , Feb 06, 2005 2. Michael J. Hernandez, Database Design For Mere Mortals, Chapter 4, 1996, retrieved from UOP resource safari Tech Books Online website, Feb 06,2005 3. Ryan Stephens & Ronald Plew, Key database design concepts, 2002, retrieved from website http://searchdatabase.techtarget.com/originalContent/0,289142,sid13_gci812028,00.html, Feb 06, 2005

Wk Reflection

Senators part of the hiring team for the class assignment. The hiring team conducted several interviews to fill two management positions for their company Des Nett. Our team interviewed a several individuals such as a lesbian female, gay male, black male and white female. After the interviews were completed, three individuals were selected and called back for a second interview to offer employment. Our management team decided to hire the gay male (Dwight) as the day manager, the Asian (Be) as the night manager and the white female (Jan) as the Secretary/Receptionist.Jennet's role was to provide feedback for the individuals. Although we did not have time to get that far in the process, the assignment was a great learning experience. Littoral played a gay male by the name of Dwight Hurley. She was interviewed for a management position for the company Des Nut. Littoral feels the role play was a good learning assignment because it showed how individuals are often judged or stereotyped be cause of their outer appearance or life preference rather than looking into their work experiences, educational background, and their work ethic.I learned that when interviewing individuals for employment it is always good to find out the qualities they possess and how that would benefit the company. After discussing the class assignment with Team C, Shakier believes that the project provided the team with a perspective on what is involved in the hiring process. The employing team conducted interviews to fill two management positions for their company Des Nett. The team interviewed individuals who were lesbian, gay, African American, and Caucasian. This provided group members with the opportunity to become more culturally diverse.The team as able to get a better understanding of how to intern;IEEE people from different backgrounds and cultures. As well, each member was provided with insight on different roles associated with recruiting potential employees. During the week five works hop, students in attendance split into two teams, interviewers, and applicants. Sharron was a 65-year-old telecommunications executive whom interviewed for one of the management positions. The interviews took place at These Nut LLC, a company that produces and manufactures huge selections of nuts.The interview team interviewed applicants of different nationalities, ages, and social choices. During the interviews several notes were made that could cost These Nut LLC thousands of dollars in legal fees. Most of the violations were employment violations such as preferred work schedules that was offered to some and not all applicants, asking derogatory and discriminatory questions such as are you married? Do you have childcare available for your children? The overall goal of this simulation was to make the teams aware of questions that should be avoided and questions that must be asked during a panel interview.

Theme of Revenge in Hamlet Essay - 880 Words

â€Å"If you seek revenge, dig two graves.† This ancient Chinese proverb explains the mood in Hamlet, a play, written by Shakespeare. The theme of revenge is seen throughout the play as each character extracts one form or another of revenge from a person who has wronged them. In the play the characters Hamlet, Laertes, and Fortinbras all desire revenge for a lost father; however, their motivations for murder differ. Hamlet is unlike the other two characters in the way that he uses reason and logic before he acts and decides to kill his uncle, Claudius, because he is aware of the consequences. For example, when Hamlet is trying to determine how he can prove Claudius the murderer, after conversing with the players about the play, following†¦show more content†¦Laertes does not think about his actions or reason through them as Hamlet does, but reacts indecisively and quickly to his father’s death with no concern for the results. For instance, when Laertes finds ou t about his father’s death, when he barges into the castle Elsinore, and demands to see the king, when Claudius convinces Laertes that he did not kill Polonius, answering Claudius’ question whether Laertes would kill even a friend to avenge his father, Laertes answers, â€Å"None but his enemies.† (IV, v, 165) The fact that Laertes would kill his own friend to avenge his father shows that he does not care for the consequences that would follow murdering your friend. He is hot headed and does not stop to think, so he does not realize he is being manipulated. Another instance, following the discussion between Claudius and Laertes aforementioned, Claudius starts to flatter Laertes into killing Hamlet for him, as Claudius questions Laertes commitment to avenging his father, Laertes declares, â€Å" To cut his throat i’ th’ church.† (IV, vii, 144) Laertes confesses with this line that he does not believe in the consequences of the after life. He has no regards for the eternal condemnation that taking a life results in. Fortinbras is the in between man of the three characters involved in revenge, because although he is quick to react, he reasons through his decisions later on. To exemplify this, in the after Claudius hearing of Fortinbras impending attack,Show MoreRelatedTheme Of Revenge In Hamlet1763 Words   |  8 PagesRevenge is one of the deepest instincts common to humanity. Different people emit different purposes of revenge and are most likely filled with an internal confliction of emotions. Once that individual gets his/her revenge, a feeling of justice is established in the mind. Unfortunately, many people blindly take revenge without thinking of their actions or the consequences and believe that they will be able to move on after they take revenge. Revenge is ultimately placed in the hands of the impatientRead MoreTheme Of Revenge In Hamlet792 Words   |  4 PagesRevenge is something most people seek when they are hurt by someone or a loved one of theirs is hurt. Revenge can be a physical or verbal action toward someone. In William Shakespeare’s play, Hamlet, the play has a major theme of revenge. Many of the characters in the play are seeking revenge, such as Hamlet, Claudius, and Laertes. Some of the characters are seeking revenge due to their father’s deaths, and others are encouraging someone to seek revenge. The theme revenge can lead to death is seenRead MoreRevenge Themes in Hamlet1077 Words   |  5 PagesIn the play ‘Hamlet written by William Shakespeare in Elizabethan times, the theme of revenge is a constant throughout the plot. Not only does it underlie almost every scene, but it also has a major effect on the story as a whole. 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Hamlet displays that he will commit any sin necessary to be able to kill his uncle, King ClaudiusRead MoreHamlet Theme Of Revenge Essay1520 Words   |  7 PagesThe play â€Å"Hamlet† by William Shakespeare follows Hamlet, the prince of Denmark, following the death of his father. Just months after his sudden death, his uncle Claudius has taken the throne that once belonged to his father and has married Hamlet’s mother, Gertrude. It is when Hamlet meets his father’s ghost one night and discovers that his father was murdered by Claudius that he begins to take part in the main theme of the play: revenge. In order for there to be revenge, the act of punishing someoneRead MoreThe Theme of Revenge in Hamlet Essay example932 Words   |  4 PagesRevenge is a recurring theme in Hamlet. Although Hamlet wants to avenge his father’s death, he is afraid of what would result from this. 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To begin with, after the ghost reveals the truth of Claudius killing King Hamlet Sr to Hamlet and demands Hamlet to seek revenge, Hamlet is somewhat convinced but mostly unsure about what he heard from the ghost, â€Å"The spirit that I have seen may be a devil, and the devilRead MoreTheme of Revenge in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay872 Words   |  4 Pagesbe considered a revenge tragedy, revenge has to be a prevalent theme throughout. Revenge needs to be intertwined in character interactions, and have a strong hold on the driving force of the plot. The desires of Hamlet, Laertes, and young Fortinbras each exhibit how the plot of Hamlet, by William Shakespeare revolves entirely around revenge. The theme of revenge starts off very early in the play, when Hamlet speaks with the ghost of his deceased father. When the ghost tells Hamlet how Claudius murderedRead MoreHamlet: Themes of Morality, Revenge, and Obsession597 Words   |  2 Pages Hamlet: Themes of mortality, revenge, and obsession. 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